Article Figures & Tables
Figures
- Fig. 1
(A) Illustration of the classical beads task. (B) Comparison of draws to decision (DTD) between patients in the at-risk mental state (ARMS) and controls. Results are reported as means and standard errors. (C) Comparison of jumping to conclusions bias (JTC; defined as 1 or 2 beads) between ARMS patients and controls (Fisher exact test, p = 0.015).
- Fig. 2
(A) Main effect of the lake decision (lake decision > colour decision). Significance threshold is p < 0.05, family-wise error [FWE]–corrected. (B) Final decision-making, indicating enhanced activation for the last fish (last fish > all previous fish). Significance threshold set at p < 0.05, FWE-corrected. (C) Final decision-making, indicating average signal change for the last fish in comparison to all previous fish in the right ventral striatum. Displayed is the first Eigenvariate of the right ventral striatal activation extracted for a mask of the right nucleus accumbens, with a significance threshold set to 1. ARMS = at-risk mental state.
Tables
Group, mean ± SD* Characteristic ARMS, n = 24 Control, n = 24 p value Age 22.0 ± 3.3 23.2 ± 4.3 0.28 Sex, female:male 10:14 9:15 0.52 Education level, yr 11.5 ± 1.6 11.8 ± 1.5 0.40 MWT-B 23.4 ± 4.2 24.3 ± 5.7 0.57 Estimated verbal IQ 94.8 ± 9.3 98.3 ± 14.4 0.32 ERIraos sum score 42.8 ± 14.8 — — ARMS, early:late 8:16 — — PANSS Total score 60.3 ± 12.9 — — Positive symptoms 13.2 ± 4.1 — — Negative symptoms 12.7 ± 4.8 — — Global psychopathology 34.5 ± 7.0 — — SANS 30.1 ± 20.1 — — CDSS 6.5 ± 4.6 — — PSP 61.7 ± 13.0 — — GAF 50.8 ± 8.8 — — CGI-S 4.0 ± 0.6 — — PSYRATS Amount of preoccupation 1.3 ± 1.5 — — Duration of preoccupation 1.5 ± 1.4 — — Conviction 1.4 ± 1.6 — — Amount of distress 1.8 ± 1.8 — — Intensity of distress 1.8 ± 1.7 — — Disruption 0.9 ± 1.2 — — ARMS = at-risk mental state; CDSS = Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia; CGI-S = Clinical Global Impression — Severity; ERIraos = Early Recognition Inventory based on IRAOS; GAF = Global Assessment of Functioning; MWT-B = Multiple Choice Word Test (version B); PANSS = Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale; PSP = Personal and Social Performance Scale; PSYRATS = Psychotic Symptoms Rating Scale; SANS = Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms; SD = standard deviation.
↵* Unless otherwise indicated.
Group, mean ± SD Characteristic ARMS, n = 24 Controls, n = 24 p value MATRICS test battery TMT-A, s 28.7 ± 8.3 26.1 ± 7.8 0.27 TMT-B, s 58.1 ± 18.2 53.0 ± 13.7 0.28 BACS-SC 57.7 ± 9.7 65.2 ± 10.4 0.013* HVLT-R 28.8 ± 4.2 30.6 ± 4.6 0.17 WMS-III-SS 18.5 ± 3.7 20.0 ± 2.5 0.10 LNS 16.1 ± 2.9 17.9 ± 3.0 0.039* NAB-Mazes 21.4 ± 3.6 24.0 ± 1.8 0.003 BVMT-R 29.3 ± 5.4 29.7 ± 4.7 0.78 Fluency 25.8 ± 6.6 26.0 ± 7.4 0.89 MSCEIT–Emotion management 91.4 ± 11.0 91.3 ± 7.8 0.98 MSCEIT–Social management 93.3 ± 7.4 92.4 ± 9.2 0.70 MSCEIT–Managing emotions 92.2 ± 8.3 91.6 ± 8.3 0.81 CPT-DPrime 2.4 ± 0.6 2.7 ± 0.6 0.14 WCST Categories completed 6.6 ± 1.2 6.8 ± 1.1 0.56 Total trials 78.4 ± 15.5 79.4 ± 11.1 0.79 Total errors (%) 19.6 ± 8.0 18.2 ± 6.0 0.47 Perseveration Score (%) 15.0 ± 13.1 13.2 ± 11.6 0.61 Concept perseverations 0.7 ± 1.0 0.4 ± 0.7 0.22 Failure to maintain set 0.9 ± 1.4 1.0 ± 1.5 0.77 ARMS = at-risk mental state; BACS-SC = Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia — Symbol Coding; BVMT-R = Brief Visual Memory Test Revised; CPT = Continuous Performance Test; HVLT-R = Hopkins Verbal Learning Task Revised; LNS = letter-number sequencing; MATRICS = Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia; MSCEIT = Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test; NAB = Neuropsychological Assessment Battery; SD = standard deviation; TMT = Trail Making Test; WCST = Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; WMSIII-SS = Wechsler Memory Scale III — Spatial Span.
↵* Not significant after Bonferroni correction for multiple testing.
- Table 3
Increased activation during the experimental (lake) decision compared to the control (colour) condition*
MNI† Activation BA k† x y z Tmax§ Inferior parietal lobule 40 5288 36 −55 49 13.49 Superior parietal lobule 7 — 27 −67 52 13.11 Inferior parietal lobule 40 — −36 −49 46 10.77 Inferior frontal gyrus 47 3024 33 20 −2 12.01 Cingulate gyrus 32 — 9 20 49 11.52 Middle frontal gyrus 11 — 27 50 −8 10.63 Middle frontal gyrus — 289 −39 56 4 10.76 Inferior frontal gyrus 47 96 −30 23 −2 8.98 Inferior frontal gyrus 9 452 −45 8 31 8.79 Middle frontal gyrus 46 — −51 29 31 6.72 Middle frontal gyrus 6 — −30 −1 52 6.18 Cerebellum — 22 0 −61 −38 5.96 - Table 4
Increased activation during the final decision in comparison to all previous decisions in the lake condition*
MNI† Activation BA k‡ x y z Tmax§ Medial frontal gyrus 6 949 −9 2 58 8.59 Middle frontal gyrus 6 30 2 70 7.51 Medial frontal gyrus 6 6 11 52 7.19 Inferior frontal gyrus 47 1965 30 23 −2 8.35 Putamen 18 8 −2 8.34 Midbrain −6 −28 −8 8.19 Lingual gyrus 17 803 9 −88 1 7.98 Lingual gyrus 17 −9 −88 1 7.56 Parahippocampal gyrus 19 30 −55 −8 7.42 Middle frontal gyrus 10 67 36 41 28 6.34 Precentral gyrus 6 41 −48 2 40 5.90 Parahippocampal gyrus 19 12 −27 −58 −5 5.85 Anterior cingulate 24 11 −9 32 19 5.48 Anterior cingulate 32 −12 29 28 5.16 Cerebellum 16 0 −34 −38 5.46 Postcentral gyrus 40 22 −45 −31 49 5.41 Postcentral gyrus 3 −42 −28 58 5.09
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