Table 1

ANCOVAs comparing the cognitive functioning of offspring exposed and nonexposed to abuse or neglect^*

	Group, adjusted mean ± SE^†		ANCOVA^‡

Domain	Nonexposed, n = 36	Exposed, n = 30	Statistic	p value	ES
IQ	−0.301 ± 0.198	−1.021 ± 0.224	F_1,60.3 = 6.15	0.016	0.61
Visual episodic memory	−0.153 ± 0.142	−0.702 ± 0.161	F_1,61.9 = 7.26	0.009	0.67
Verbal episodic memory	−0.533 ± 0.190	−0.964 ± 0.209	F_1,62.0 = 2.30	0.14	0.37
Executive functions (initiation)	0.164 ± 0.108	−0.494 ± 0.123	F_1,34.4 = 16.70	< 0.001	1.01
Working memory	−0.014 ± 0.107	−0.235 ± 0.121	F_1,45.8 = 1.86	0.180	0.34

ANCOVA = analysis of covariance; ES = effect size; MANCOVA = multivariate analysis of covariance; SE = standard error.
↵* Offspring exposed to abuse/neglect had lower cognitive performance than nonexposed offspring (MANCOVA; Wilks’ λ = 0.63, F_5,57 = 6.74, p < 0.001).
↵† The offsprings’ raw scores on each neuropsychological test were converted to z scores based on the cognitive performance of 170 young healthy controls. Means were adjusted for age and sex.
↵‡ To account for possible correlation among participants within the same sibship, a multilevel model was carried out using the MIXED procedure of SAS version 9.1.3 (SAS Institute Inc.). Sibships nested in the group were used as the second level and were modelled according to a random effect. Degrees of freedom were obtained using the Kenward–Roger method. (41)