Characteristics of included studies
| Study | Diagnosis (criteria) | Design (blind) | Comparison | Session | n | Duration, wk | Outcome (raters) | Subtype (%) | IQ | Stimulant, % | Age, yr (range) | Female, % | Country |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hasslinger et al.43 | ADHD (DSM-IV-TR or ICD-10) | RCT (no) | NF:SCP; TAU | Variable | 51; 49 | N/A | Conners-3: index, inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | Inattention (42.57) | 102.7 | 59.4 | 12.3 (9–17) | 26.73 | Sweden |
| Arnold et al.14 | ADHD (DSM-5) | RCT (double-blind) | NF:TBR (θ/SMR); sham | 38 | 84; 58 | 14 | Conners-3 DSM5: index, inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | Inattention (35.9 ), combined (64.1 ), H/I (0 ) | N/A | 28.9 | 8.58 (7–11) | 21.8 | U.S. |
| Rajabi et al.42* | ADHD (DSM-5) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR + high β; wait list | 30 | 16; 16 | 12 | CTRS-R and CPRS-R: inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | Inattention (15.65 ), combined (59.4 ), H/I (25.4 ) | 107.25 | N/A | 10.3 (6–12) | 0 | Iran |
| Lim et al.33 | ADHD (DSM-IVTR) | RCT (no) | NF:BCI; wait list | 24 | 81; 82 | 8 | 1 .ARS: inattention (clinicians and parents); 2. CGAS (clinicians) | Inattention (41.7 ), combined (58.3 ), H/I (0 ) | N/A | 0 | 8.6 (6–12) | 15.3 | Singapore |
| Moreno-García et al.37 | ADHD (90th percentile teacher ARS-IV) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR | 40 | 19 | 20 | ARS-IV: total, inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | Inattention (50.0), combined (31.58), H/I (18.42) | 100.15 (KBIT) | 0 | 8.66 (7–14) | 23.5 | Spain |
| Geladé et al.28 | ADHD (DSM-IV-TR) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR (θ/SMR); physical activity | 30 | 33; 31 | 13 | SWAN: inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | N/A | 99.94 | 0 | 9.68 (7–13) | 25 | Netherlands |
| Minder et al.36 | ADHD (DSM-IV) | RCT (no) | NF:SCP; CogT | N/A | 38; 39 | 8–14 | Conners-3 ADHD DSM–IV: inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | N/A | 101.23 | 33.77 | 10.79 (8.5–16) | 35.06 | Switzerland |
| Strehl et al.40 | ADHD (DSM-IV-TR) | RCT (no) | NF:SCP; EMG-BF | 25 | 75; 69 | 16 | FBB-ADHS: total, inattention, H/I (teachers and parents) | Combined (100 %) | 105.48 (CPM) | 0 | 8.59 (7–9) | 17.36 | Germany |
| Bink et al.26 | ADHD (DSM-IV-TR) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR (θ/SMR); TAU | 37 | 59; 31 | 25 | CBCL: inattention (parents) | N/A | 100.66 | 51 | 16.14 (12–24) | 0 | Netherlands |
| Christiansen et al.27 | ADHD (DSM-IV) | RCT (no) | NF:SCP; self-management | 30 | 14; 15 | 12 | Conners-3 ADHD index (parents and teachers) | N/A | 110 | 23 | 8.42 (7–11) | 17 | Germany |
| Maurizio et al.35* | ADHD (DSM-IV, DSM-V) | RCT (blind to rater) | NF:tonic TBR + phasic SCP (24 channel); EMG-BF | 36 | 13; 12 | 12 | CTRS and CPRS: total, inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | Inattention (0), combined (100), H/I (0) | 114.5 (German WISC) | 8 | 10.31 (8.5–13.5) | 12 | Germany |
| Steiner et al.38 | ADHD (DSM-IV) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR (θ/SMR); control | 40 | 34; 36 | 20 | 1. Conners 3: inattention, H/I (parent and teachers); 2. Conners 3 global index (parents); 3. SKAMP (teachers) | N/A | 107.78 | 50 | 8.4 (7–10) | 31.43 | U.S. |
| van Dongen-Boomsma et al.41 | ADHD (DSM-IVTR) | RCT (double-blind) | NF:TBR (TBR + SMR); placebo-NF | 30 | 22; 19 | N/A | ARS: total, inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | Inattention (21.95), combined (73.17), H/I (4.88) | 105.7 | 63.41 | 10.59 (8–15) | 17.07 | Netherlands |
| Bakhshayesh et al.25 | 1. Hyperkinetic disorder; 2. Attention deficit without hyperactivity (ICD-10) | RCT (single blind) | NF:TBR; EMG-BF | 30 | 18; 17 | 15 | FBB-HKS: total, inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | Inattention (82.9) | N/A | 20 | 9.34 (6–14) | 25.7 | Germany |
| Lansbergen et al.15 | ADHD (DSM-IVTR) | RCT (double-blind) | NF:TBR (SMR/θ training); placebo-NF | 30 | 8; 6 | 20 | ARS-IV, inattention, H/I, CGI (parents) | N/A | N/A | 64.3 | 10.2 (8–15) | 7.1 | Netherlands |
| Steiner et al.39 | ADHD (by physician) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR; wait list | 23.4 | 13; 15 | 16 | CRS-R ADHD index, inattention, hyperactivity (parents and teachers) | N/A | N/A | 60 | 12.4 (11–14) | 47.8 | U.S. |
| Gevensleben et al.29* | ADHD (DSM-IV) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR + SCP; attention skills training | 36 | 59; 35 | N/A | FBB-HKS: total, inattention, H/I (parents and teachers) | Inattention (29.8), combined (70.2), H/I (0) | 105.5 | 0 | 9.6 (8–12) | 18.1 | Germany |
| Holtmann et al.31 | ADHD (ICD-10 F90.0, F90.1, F98.8) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR; computer-aided attention training | 20 | 20; 14 | N/A | FBB-HKS: total, inattention, H/I (parents) | Inattention (58.8), H/I (35.3) | N/A | 79.4 | 10.3 (7–12) | 8.8 | Germany |
| Lévesque et al.32 | ADHD (DSM-IV) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR/SMR; control | 40 | 15; 5 | 13.5 | CPRS-R: inattention, hyperactivity (parents) | N/A | N/A | 0 | 10.2 (8–12) | 20 | Canada |
| Heinrich et al.30 | ADHD (DSM-IV) | RCT (no) | NF:SCP; wait list | 25 | 13; 9 | 3 | FBB-HKS: total (parents) | Inattention (27.27), combined (72.73) | 112.9 | 45.45 | 10.81 (7–13) | 4.5 | Germany |
| Linden et al.34 | ADHD (DSM-III-R) | RCT (no) | NF:TBR; wait list | 40 | 9; 9 | 24 | Iowa-Conners behaviour rating scale: inattention and hyperactivity (parents) | N/A | 110.1 | 0 | 9.17 (5–15) | N/A | U.S. |
ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders; ADS = ADHD diagnostic system; ARS = ADHD rating scale; BCI = brain computer interface; CAARS = Conners’ Adult ADHD Rating Scale; CGAS = Children’s Global Assessment Scale; CGI = Clinical Global Impressions; CogT = PC-supported cognitive training; CPM = colored progressive matrices; CPT = continuous performance task; CPRS = Conners’ Parent Rating Scale; CPRS-R = Conners’ Parent Rating Scale – Revised; CRS-R = Conners’ Rating Scale – Revised; CTRS = Conners’ Teacher Rating Scale; CV = coefficient of variation; D2 test = test of attention; DA = dextroamphetamine; DSB = digit span backward; DSM-5 = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition; DSM-III-R = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed., revised; DSM-IV = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition; DSM-IV-TR = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision; EMG-BF = electromyographic biofeedback; FBB-ADHS = German ADHD Rating Scale; H/I = hyperactivity/impulsivity; ICD-10 = International Classification of Diseases, tenth revision; INKA = inventory for complex attention; IQ = intelligence quotient; IVA-CPT = Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test; KBIT = Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test; KITAP = Test for Attentional Performance for Children; MP = methylphenidate; N/A = not applicable; NF = neurofeedback; RCT = randomized controlled trial; SCF = standard computer format; SCP = slow cortical potential training; SD = standard deviation; SKAMP = Swanson, Kotkin, Agler, M-Flynn and Pelham Scale; SMR = sensorimotor rhythm; SWAN = Strengths and Weaknesses of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity-symptoms and Normal-behaviors; TAP = Test of Attentional Performance; TAP-RT = Test of Attentional Performance-Reaction Time; TAU = treatment as usual; TBR = θ/β training; VCPT = visual continuous performance test; VSWM = visual spatial working memory; WISC = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children.
↵* Studies used 2 different neurofeedback protocols.