Emotion-regulation skills as a treatment target in psychotherapy☆
Introduction
Throughout the past two decades, the development and evaluation of disorder-specific treatments has been one of the most prosperous fields in psychotherapy research. But despite the notable progress, these treatments are not yet as effective as we would like (e.g., Barlow, 2002, Westen and Morrison, 2001). Given that difficulties in emotion regulation are common among a broad range of mental disorders (Gross and Muñoz, 1995, Thoits, 1985), we propose that the effectiveness of current psychological interventions for mental disorders can be improved by: (a) identifying general emotion-regulation skills that are integral to the development, maintenance, and treatment of a broad range of mental disorders; (b) developing non-disorder-specific interventions that can enhance these skills; and (c) incorporating these interventions into treatment packages that also contain disorder-specific components (for similar ideas, see Moses & Barlow, 2006).
According to Thompson (1994), emotion regulation has been defined as “the extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions, especially their intensive and temporal features, to accomplish one's goals” (pp. 27–28). Building on this definition and synthesizing established emotion-regulation theories (e.g., Gratz and Roemer, 2004, Gross, 1998, Larsen, 2000, Saarni, 1999), Berking (2007) has proposed a model that conceptualizes adaptive emotion regulation as the interaction of nine specific emotion-regulation skills. Based on the available literature, the following skills are considered important: The ability to (a) consciously process emotions/be aware of emotions (e.g., Lischetzke & Eid, 2003), (b) identify and label emotions (e.g., Bagby et al., 1994, Feldman-Barrett et al., 2001), (c) interpret emotion-related body sensations correctly (e.g., Damasio, 1994, Marchesi et al., 2005), (d) understand the prompts of emotions (e.g., Southam-Gerow & Kendall, 2002), (e) support oneself in emotionally distressing situations (e.g., Gilbert et al., 2006, Leahy, 2002), (f) actively modify negative emotions in order to feel better (e.g., Catanzaro and Greenwood, 1994, Salovey et al., 1995), (g) accept emotions (e.g., Greenberg, 2002, Hayes et al., 1999, Leahy, 2002), (h) be resilient to /tolerate negative emotions (e.g., Kabat-Zinn, 2003, Kobasa et al., 1982), and (i) confront emotionally distressing situations in order to attain important goals (e.g., Hayes et al., 1999, Margraf and Berking, 2005). An important assumption of the model is that the abilities to modify emotions in a desired direction and/or accept and tolerate undesired emotions are integral for mental health. In contrast, the other skills are only assumed to be relevant to the extent that they facilitate the application of the pivotal skills of modification and/or acceptance/tolerance (for further details see Berking, 2007).
General emotion-regulation skills (i.e., skills that can be applied to successfully regulate a wide range of emotions) are important for several reasons: First, negative emotions that are not necessarily mentioned in the diagnostic criteria of a particular disorder often cue behaviour patterns associated with the disorder (e.g., anger cues binge eating; sadness cues substance abuse). Second, negative emotions not necessarily mentioned in diagnostic criteria often severely interfere with effective coping and implementation of strategies learned in treatment (e.g., anxiety impedes depressed patients from active problem solving; depressed mood and feelings of hopelessness impede anxious patients from engaging in feared situations). Finally, many patients suffer from more than one disorder (Krueger & Markon, 2006), which could be explained at least partly by general emotion-regulation deficits (e.g., inability to accept one's feelings likely will lead to a variety of responses, such as avoidance or rumination, that eventually lead to multiple disorders, such as anxiety and depression). Thus, the enhancement of skills that are applicable to more than one emotion can target the essence of a patient's problems. Especially with patients high in comorbidity, a focus on general emotion-regulation skills as adjunctive to disorder-specific interventions may enhance efficacy and efficiency of these interventions.
There is ample empirical evidence that emotion-regulation skills are involved in the development, maintenance, and treatment of mental disorders. For example, cross-sectional studies have shown psychopathology to be associated with deficits in various emotion-regulation skills (Levine et al., 1997, Novick-Kline et al., 2005). Longitudinal studies have also demonstrated that emotion-regulation skills predict status of mental health at later points in time (Kraaij et al., 2002, Seiffge-Krenke, 2000). In addition, neuroimaging studies indicate that successful emotion regulation involves brain areas that have been found to be functionally impaired in subjects suffering from mental-health problems (for reviews see Grawe, 2006, or Ochsner & Gross, 2008). Finally, mediational and experimental studies have demonstrated that emotion-regulation skills mediate the effects of a stressor on the development of psychopathological symptoms (Sim & Zeman, 2005) and influence emotional responses toward experimentally induced emotions and/or components of emotions (Campbell-Sills et al., 2006, Feldner et al., 2006, Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).
Additionally, the effectiveness of treatments that focus on enhancing emotion-regulation skills suggests that these skills might be important mechanisms of change in psychological interventions. For example, emotion regulation is a core skill taught in dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993), which has displayed effectiveness in the treatment of borderline personality disorder (BPD; for review see Lynch, Trost, Salsman, & Linehan, 2007) and has amassed at least preliminary evidence indicating effectiveness in the treatment of substance abuse (Linehan et al., 2002), eating disorders (Safer et al., 2001, Telch et al., 2001), and depression in older adults (Lynch, Morse, Mendelson, & Robins, 2003). Further examples of promising treatments that focus on emotion-regulation skills include treatments for binge eating (Clyne & Blampied, 2004), PTSD related to childhood abuse (Cloitre, Koenen, Cohen, & Han, 2002), and generalized anxiety disorder (Mennin, Heimberg, Turk, & Fresco, 2002), as well as an acceptance-based emotion-regulation training for BPD (Gratz & Gunderson, 2006).
However, although extensive data suggest that deficits in general emotion-regulation skills are involved in the development, maintenance, and treatment of a variety of mental disorders, several limitations in current research make it difficult to use this knowledge to improve psychological interventions. First, most studies have focused exclusively on one or two specific skills. Since these studies usually differ in methodology, it is difficult to compare results and clarify which skills are most strongly associated with mental health. Second, at this point we have little information about which (of the above) emotion-regulation skills must be enhanced in order to improve outcome of psychological interventions. Third, we do not know whether certain emotion-regulation skills are more likely to be improved by specific types of treatment. Fourth, there is a striking lack of studies that systematically vary the amount of training in emotion-regulation skills during treatment. Finally, there is not yet one empirical study that investigates the effectiveness of an emotion-regulation intervention that can be added to a variety of empirically based treatments and can target emotion-regulation deficits in a broad range of mental disorders. This final limitation is particularly problematic, as such an intervention could be applied more economically and disseminated more easily than a series of disorder-specific emotion-regulation trainings. Therefore, the aim of this pilot study is to clarify the importance of general emotion-regulation skills as a treatment target by addressing the following questions:
- 1
Which emotion-regulation skills are particularly associated with sound mental health?
- 2
For which emotion-regulation skills is skill-enhancement during treatment particularly associated with treatment outcome?
- 3
Can the effects of a CBT-based treatment be improved by incorporating a non-disorder-specific intervention that specifically targets general emotion-regulation skills?
Section snippets
Study participants
The primary sample of this study consisted of 289 inpatients treated for a variety of mental disorders in a mental-health hospital in Germany. Recruitment occurred between January and April 2006. Patients were eligible for the study if they were at least 18 years of age, met criteria for a mental disorder according to ICD-10 (Dilling, Mombour, & Schmidt, 1991), were German-speaking, and were scheduled for 6 weeks of inpatient treatment. In order to maximize the clinical realism and ensure that
Pretreatment emotion regulation and mental health
The clinical and community-based samples differed with regard to age and sex (t[446] = 18.96, p < 0.001; χ2[1, N = 535] = 93.96, p < 0.001); thus these variables were included as covariates. As shown in Table 2, internal consistency of the ERSQ subscales was adequate-to-good in both samples. Correlations between ERSQ subscales ranged from r = 0.24–0.61 (Mdn = 0.44) in the clinical sample and r = 0.05–0.63 (Mdn = 0.36) in the control sample.
Also shown in Table 2, ERSQ total scores were significantly lower in the
Discussion
The goal of this study was to evaluate the importance of targeting general emotion-regulation skills in psychological interventions. To this end, we assessed self-reports of skills application in a sample of 289 inpatients pre- and posttreatment, as well as in a sample of 246 controls. Results show that psychotherapy patients report fewer emotion-regulation skills than non-clinical controls. Additionally, pretreatment emotion-regulation skills were significantly associated with measures of
References (66)
- et al.
The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale II: convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity
Journal of Psychosomatic Research
(1994) - et al.
Effects of suppression and acceptance on emotional responses of individuals with anxiety and mood disorders
Behaviour Research and Therapy
(2006) - et al.
Anxiety sensitivity-physical concerns as a moderator of the emotional consequences of emotion suppression during biological challenge: an experimental test using individual growth curve analysis
Behaviour Research and Therapy
(2006) - et al.
Preliminary data on an acceptance-based emotion regulation group intervention for deliberate self-harm among women with borderline personality disorder
Behavior Therapy
(2006) - et al.
Acceptance and commitment therapy: model, processes and outcomes
Behaviour Research and Therapy
(2006) A comparison of cognitive and guided mastery therapy of agoraphobia
Behaviour Research and Therapy
(1995)A model of emotional schemas
Cognitive and Behavioral Practice
(2002)- et al.
Dialectical behavior therapy versus comprehensive validation therapy plus 12-step for the treatment of opioid dependent women meeting criteria for borderline personality disorder
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
(2002) - et al.
Dialectical behavior therapy for depressed older adults: a randomized pilot study
American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
(2003) - et al.
Level of emotional awareness as a differentiating variable between individuals with and without generalized anxiety disorder
Journal of Anxiety Disorders
(2005)
Causal links between stressful events, coping style, and adolescent symptomatology
Journal of Adolescence
Emotion regulation and understanding: implications for child psychopathology and therapy
Clinical Psychology Review
Guided mastery and stimulus exposure treatments for severe performance anxiety in agoraphobics
Behaviour Research and Therapy
Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic
Training Emotionaler Kompetenzen
Entwicklung und Validierung eines Fragebogens zur standardisierten Selbsteinschätzung emotionaler Kompetenzen
Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie, Psychologie und Psychotherapie
Age differences in emotion-regulation strategies in handling everyday problems
The Journals of Gerontology
Expectancies for negative mood regulation, coping, and dysphoria among college students
Journal of Counseling Psychology
Skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by exposure: a phase-based treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Training in emotion regulation as a treatment for binge eating: a preliminary study
Behaviour Change
Descartes' error: Emotion, reason and the human brain
NonEnInternationale Klassifikation psychischer Störungen, ICD-10 (deutsche Ausgabe)
Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies
Knowing what you're feeling and knowing what to do about it: mapping the relation between emotion differentiation and emotion regulation
Cognition and Emotion
SCL-90-R. Die Symptom-Checkliste von L. R. Derogatis
Self-criticism and self-warmth: an imagery study exploring their relation to depression
Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy
Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment
Neuropsychotherapy: How the neuroscience inform effective psychotherapy
Emotion-focused therapy: Coaching clients to work through their feelings
The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review
Review of General Psychology
Emotion regulation and mental health
Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice
BDI. Beck-Depressions-Inventar von A. T. Beck
Cited by (0)
- ☆
Preparation of this paper was supported by Grant PA001-113040 from the Swiss National Science Foundation to Matthias Berking.
- 1
Present address: Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Gesellschaftsstrasse 49, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland. Tel.: +41 31 631 54 17; fax: +41 631 41 55. E-mail: [email protected].