Article Figures & Tables
Figures
- Fig. 1
Behavioural data. (A) Behavioural variables as a function of Flanker compatibility and group (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD] = red; control = blue). The distribution of each variable is summarized with a boxplot; the mean ± 1 standard error of the mean (SEM) are also displayed to show group differences. These plots display residualized variables (see Methods section), thus variables with only positive values may be transformed to (slightly) negative values after residualization. Repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) F1,52 stat-tistics for Flanker compatibility, diagnosis and their interaction are provided as FC, FD, and FC × D, respectively. (B) Examples of reaction time (RT) distributions over all trials in 4 control (left) and ADHD (right) participants. Histograms are overlayed with kernel density estimates. (C) Average RT distributions ± 1 SEM for each group. To fairly compare distributions between groups, RTs for each participant were divided into 10 quantiles and normalized to compute probability densities. Differences in the average RT distribution were determined using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic, D, which considers the maximum absolute difference between the cumulative distribution functions (inset). Significance of D was determined by comparing the observed value to a null distribution of D′ values, which were created by permuting group labels (10 000 permutations). The distributions differed significantly across groups (D = 0.15, p = 0.014).
- Fig. 2
Component activation to different task conditions. (A) Component maps of cingulo-opercular networks (CONs; left), dorsal attention networks (DANs; middle) and the right-lateralized ventral attention network (VAN; right). Component t maps are thresholded at t > 8 (1-sample t test) and displayed at the most informative slices. See Table 1 for peak coordinates and cluster extents of each component. (B) Average hemodynamic response functions (HRFs) were estimated from incompatible trials, the condition that evoked the strongest response for these components (see Methods section). Error bands indicate ± 1 SEM. (C) Component amplitudes to compatible, incompatible and error trials as a function of group (attention-deficit/hyperactivity [ADHD] = red; control = blue). Repeated-measures analysis of variance F statistics for Flanker compatibility, diagnosis, and their interaction are provided as FC2,98, FD1,98 and FC × D2,98, respectively.
- Fig. 3
Association between error amplitudes and behavioural variability. Multiple regression model predicting reaction time (RT) from the cingulo-operculum network (CON1; left) and CON2 (right) error amplitudes. The model was determined with backward selection (see Methods). Each scatterplot displays the association between a single predictor and the response variable (sRT) adjusted for the remaining predictors (i.e., the remaining terms of the model are subtracted from the response vector). Grey contours indicate the 95% confidence interval for the regression line (dashed black line). ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
- Fig. 4
Post-error motor adaption (PEMA) and its association with the ventral attention network (VAN). (A) Component maps of lateralized left and right motor (MOT) systems. Component t maps are thresholded at t > 8 (1-sample t test) and displayed at the most informative slices. See Table 1 for peak coordinates and cluster extents of each component. (B) The MOT component activations on post-correct trials (divided by response laterality) and post-error trials as a function for each group. Only errors of commission are considered. (C) Post-error motor adaption for MOT components as a function of group. We calculated PEMA as the difference in activation between post-error trials and post-correct trials on the relevant side. Group differences in PEMA are indicated with t statistics and p values (1-tailed). (D) Scatterplot showing the association between VAN error amplitude and PEMA, averaged over right and left MOT networks. The simple regression model was determined with backward selection (see Methods section). Grey contours indicate the 95% confidence interval for the regression line (dashed black line).
- Fig. 5
Task-driven connectivity analysis between cingulo-opercular (CON) and ventral attention (VAN) networks. (A) Example of the cross-correlation analysis performed between trial × trial amplitudes of CON1 (solid line) and VAN for a single control participant. Positive lags denote the VAN lagging behind the CON1, while negative lags denote the VAN leading. (B) Average cross-correlations (± 1 SEM) between CON1 and VAN (left), and CON2 and VAN (right), as a function of group (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD] = red; control = blue). †Significantly different from zero across the entire sample at p < 0.05, uncorrected; *significant difference between groups (p < 0.05, uncorrected). The CON1–VAN connectivity was significantly different from zero at lag 0 (t53 = 6.3, p < 0.001) and lag 1 (t53 = 2.11, p = 0.039). The CON2–VAN connectivity was significantly different from zero at lag 0 (t53 = 5.41, p < 0.001). Group differences were found only for CON1–VAN at positive lags 1 (t52 = 2.4, p = 0.022) and 2 (t = 2.1, p = 0.037). (C) Regression model predicting post-error motor adaption (PEMA) from CON1–VAN connectivity (left) and VAN (right) error amplitude. The model was determined with backward selection (see Methods section). Inclusion of CON1–VAN connectivity in the model significantly increases the fraction of accounted variance (see Fig. 4D). The CON1–VAN connectivity was averaged over 0 to 2 lags (shaded region in B). Grey contours indicate the 95% confidence interval for the regression line (dashed black line).
Tables
MNI coordinate Component Vol, mm3 Max t statistic x y z Region BA CON1 (Component 21) 22815 44.8 −33 27 −6 L insula L BA 47 24273 42.25 36 21 0 R insula R BA 47 38016 32.11 0 27 48 L/R cingulate gyrus L/R BA 32 621 11.09 39 −60 −33 R cerebellum (Crus 1) — 324 10.5 −39 −57 −33 L cerebellum (Crus 1) — CON2 (Component 91) 37098 33.84 3 0 66 L/R SMA L/R BA 6 12744 28.38 54 0 51 R precentral gyrus R BA 6 7587 23.02 −48 −9 54 L precentral gyrus L BA6 5886 21.56 54 9 0 R insula R BA 13 9261 18.72 −54 9 0 L insula L BA 13 2835 15.94 3 −18 12 L/R thalamus — 5508 15.41 −21 −57 45 L SPL L BA 7 3753 13.47 33 −72 54 R SPL R BA 7 783 10.84 15 −6 21 R caudate — 297 10.75 −6 54 −12 L medial frontal gyrus L BA 11 540 10.11 −30 42 21 L middle frontal gyrus L BA 10 LDAN (Component 27) 61101 41.63 −42 −45 48 L IPL L BA 40 4563 17.89 −51 −63 −9 L ITG L BA 19 6021 14.87 45 −39 51 R IPL R BA 40 3024 14.37 −51 3 33 L precentral gyrus L BA 9 2565 13.78 −24 −6 57 L middle frontal gyrus L BA 6 2889 13.13 15 −72 54 R SPL R BA 7 RDAN (Component 36) 61992 46.63 42 −45 48 R IPL R BA 40 11718 21.57 54 −57 −12 R ITG R BA 19 5562 19.8 54 9 27 R precentral gyrus R BA 9 2781 11.71 30 −3 54 R middle frontal gyrus R BA 6 1620 11.45 −36 −48 42 L IPL L BA 40 756 10.35 −21 −72 54 L SPL L BA 7 VAN (Component 33) 69741 46.15 48 −51 15 R MTG R BA 22, 39 4293 12.8 −54 −63 12 L MTG L BA 22, 39 513 10.81 45 3 51 R middle frontal gyrus R BA 6 675 10.58 54 27 0 R IFG (p. triangularis) R BA 47 RMOT (Component 1) 44226 49.64 42 −24 66 R precentral gyrus R BA 4 8640 25.58 −24 −54 −24 L cerebellum (VI) — 3591 21.19 33 −3 −6 R putamen — 2376 17.63 15 −21 9 R thalamus — 3267 14.11 48 −21 18 R insula R BA 13 837 12.47 −24 −63 −54 L cerebellum (VIII) — LMOT (Component 2) 47223 50.22 −39 −30 69 L precentral gyrus L BA 3 6588 22.56 21 −57 −21 R cerebellum (VI) — 2322 19.69 −12 −21 0 L thalamus — 3321 19.04 −30 −9 −3 L putamen — 1863 12.27 −48 −24 21 L insula L BA 13 540 9.79 12 −72 −48 R cerebellum (VIII) — BA = Brodmann area; CON = cingulo-opercular network; IFG = inferior frontal gyrus; IPL = inferior parietal lobule; ITG = inferior temporal gyrus; L = left; LDAN/RDAN = left/right dorsal attention network; LMOT/RMOT = lateralized left/right motor systems; MNI = Montreal Neurological Institute; MTG = middle temporal gyrus; R = right; SMA = supplementary motor area; SPL = superior parietal lobule; VAN = ventral attention network.
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