Skip to main content

Main menu

  • Home
  • Issues
    • Issue in progress
    • Issues by date
  • Sections
    • Editorial
    • Review
    • Research
    • Commentary
    • Psychopharmacology for the Clinician
    • Letters to the Editor
  • Topic Collections
  • Instructions for Authors
    • Overview for authors
    • Submission checklist
    • Editorial policies
    • Publication fees
    • Submit a manuscript
    • Dr. Francis Wayne Quan Memorial Prize
    • Open access
  • Alerts
    • Email alerts
    • RSS
  • About
    • General information
    • Staff
    • Editorial Board
    • Contact
  • CMAJ JOURNALS
    • CMAJ
    • CMAJ Open
    • CJS
    • JAMC

User menu

Search

  • Advanced search
JPN
  • CMAJ JOURNALS
    • CMAJ
    • CMAJ Open
    • CJS
    • JAMC
JPN

Advanced Search

  • Home
  • Issues
    • Issue in progress
    • Issues by date
  • Sections
    • Editorial
    • Review
    • Research
    • Commentary
    • Psychopharmacology for the Clinician
    • Letters to the Editor
  • Topic Collections
  • Instructions for Authors
    • Overview for authors
    • Submission checklist
    • Editorial policies
    • Publication fees
    • Submit a manuscript
    • Dr. Francis Wayne Quan Memorial Prize
    • Open access
  • Alerts
    • Email alerts
    • RSS
  • About
    • General information
    • Staff
    • Editorial Board
    • Contact
  • Subscribe to our alerts
  • RSS feeds
  • Follow JPN on Twitter
Editorial

Cannabis: A potential efficacious intervention for PTSD or simply snake oil?

Alfonso Abizaid, Zul Merali and Hymie Anisman
J Psychiatry Neurosci March 01, 2019 44 (2) 75-78; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.190021
Alfonso Abizaid
From the Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University (Abizaid, Anisman); and the Royal’s Institute of Mental Health (Merali), Ottawa, Ont., Canada.
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Zul Merali
From the Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University (Abizaid, Anisman); and the Royal’s Institute of Mental Health (Merali), Ottawa, Ont., Canada.
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Hymie Anisman
From the Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University (Abizaid, Anisman); and the Royal’s Institute of Mental Health (Merali), Ottawa, Ont., Canada.
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • Article
  • Responses
  • Metrics
  • PDF
Loading

The ancient Egyptians used willow bark as a remedy for aches and pains, even though they were unaware that salicylic acid was responsible for its anti-pyrogenic and anti-inflammatory actions.1 Based on anecdotal reports and social media chatter, cannabis might yet displace salicylic acid as the most prolific cure-all. Like the bark of the willow, the marijuana plant and its derivatives have been used to diminish treatment-resistant epilepsy and to reduce chronic pain,2 even before it was understood that the active components of the cannabis plant, Δ9-tetrahydocannabinol (THC) and canabidiol (CBD), contributed to these outcomes. Cannabis is also touted to be effective in attenuating a wide range of conditions, including asthma, inflammatory bowel disease, glaucoma, multiple sclerosis, menstrual cramps, AIDS, nausea and cancer. Beyond these effects on physical conditions, cannabis has been reported to improve neurocognitive and psychiatric conditions, such as Alzheimer disease, anxiety disorders and bipolar disorder.2,3

Progress in understanding the potential positive and negative impact of cannabis within clinical situations has been limited, and only a handful of high-quality clinical trials were reported to have used cannabinoids in the treatment of numerous illnesses.2 As a result, our understanding of the potential adverse effects of chronic cannabis use remains meager. Nonetheless, there are indications that cannabis promotes cognitive disturbances, impairs neuronal plasticity and organization in the adolescent brain, promotes persistent functional brain changes, promotes abuse liability and, in highly vulnerable individuals, may exacerbate the course of schizophrenia.4–6 At the same time, it may be essential not to go overboard; caution has been recommended concerning “the real risks” of marijuana, and calls have been made for evidence-based analyses of the links between this agent and the occurrence of mental illnesses.7

Increased attention has focused on the potential use of cannabis in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, as we all know, treatment of PTSD has been a hard nut to crack. Ideally, the neurobiological mechanisms of psychological disorders could be assessed using animal models.8 Yet, even under the best conditions, this can be difficult to achieve, especially in relation to PTSD. Among other things, paradigms used to model PTSD are frequently the same as those used to model depressive disorders and anxiety (e.g., freezing in response to conditioned fear cues; response to novel stimuli after exposure to uncontrollable footshock; forced swim performance following prolonged restraint). 9,10 To be sure, PTSD shares several endophenotypes with depression and anxiety, making it difficult to distinguish underlying processes within animal models. Furthermore, PTSD develops in only a small portion of individuals who experience extreme stressors, whereas this is rarely considered in most animal models.10 Several published reviews of the literature have offered varied suggestions that could be instrumental in enhancing the validity of animal models. Ultimately, these models would necessarily require multiple behavioural tests to simulate the presumed symptoms of PTSD in humans, although simulating intrusive thoughts is obviously not possible. As well, it is necessary to consider sex differences, the history of traumatic encounters across the lifespan, analyses of PTSD-related genetic and epigenetic influences (e.g., methylation of FKBP5 and NR3C1 genes, which affect glucocorticoid receptors, modulate glucocorticoid sensitivity and are associated with corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1)11,12 and possibly even actions related to trauma encountered in earlier generations that might have engendered epigenetic changes.9,13

To appreciate the processes that govern the development, maintenance and treatment of PTSD, it would be necessary to consider the actions of stressors on varied neurobiological processes. Ordinarily, acute stressful events influence autonomic nervous system functioning, promote gut microbial changes, stimulate the release of numerous metabolic hormones and several neurotransmitters (e.g., glucocorticoids, monoamine functioning, γ-aminobutyric acid, glutamate), and affect neurotrophin functioning as well as microglia activity and the resultant release of proinflammatory cytokines within the brain.9,14 With chronic stressor experiences, some of these same neurobiological processes may be sustained, eventually leading to excessive neuronal activation or taxing of critical resources (allostatic overload), favouring the development of psychological pathologies.15 The sheer number of stressor-provoked neurobiological changes makes it difficult to identify which of these (or their interactions) contribute to the emergence of PTSD, and indeed, the disorder is likely biochemically heterogeneous.

The brain processes that govern the development and persistence of PTSD have yet to be identified fully, and most of what is known comes from preclinical animal studies (despite the problems inherent with animal models). Sites involved in threat detection, fear learning (or alternatively disturbed fear extinction), contextual processing, emotion regulation and executive function appear salient in this regard. Accordingly, PTSD features in humans were attributed to neuronal dysfunction within the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex and hippocampus and with diminished connectivity between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala.16 Furthermore, low endocannabinoid (eCB) tone contributes to the amygdala hyperactivation as well as the anxiety and hyperarousal symptoms characteristic of PTSD.17 The hyperarousal anxiety may, in turn, be fundamental in promoting many of the most debilitating aspects of PTSD, including sleep disturbances, memory and cognitive impairments, altered pain sensitivity, as well as depression, anxiety, emotional numbing and suicidality.18,19 Hyperarousal anxiety may also serve as a driver for symptoms that comprise re-experiencing, avoidance and emotional numbing. 20 In addition, other features of PTSD, such as dissociation, are more prominent in females than in males.20 These distinguishing characteristics of PTSD may offer clues as to the most efficacious treatments of the disorder.

Given that eCB processes are affected by stressors and can affect anxiety and fear,21 it was hypothesized that eCB functioning is tied to the development of PTSD, possibly through a corticotropin-releasing hormone–mediated reduction of anandamide in several brain regions.17 Paralleling this view, it was maintained that pharmacological manipulations of endogenous cannabinoids could be used in the treatment of PTSD.22 As in the case of many other purported benefits of cannabis, much of the supportive evidence in humans has come from anecdotal or case reports as well as observational studies that provide little evidence of a causal connection. For instance, individuals presenting with PTSD characteristics frequently use cannabis in an effort to self-medicate, reporting that the drug diminished anxiety and arousal and enhanced sleep.17

Importantly, PTSD was associated with increased expression of cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) and reduced peripheral levels of the eCB anandamide8 as well as a compensatory increase of CB1 availability, which was linked to excessive threat processing and with features of anxious arousal.23 In essence, a deficiency of eCB signalling reflects a stress endophenotype underlying PTSD,17 raising the possibility that endocannabinoid manipulations could be potentially useful in a therapeutic capacity.24

There have been indications that cannabis or some of its components, primarily THC and CBD, diminish particular symptoms of PTSD. In this regard, in a small study (n = 10), 5 mg of THC twice a day as an add-on treatment enhanced sleep quality and reduced the frequency of night-mares, PTSD hyperarousal (based on the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale) and global symptom severity.25 The synthetic analogue of THC, nabilone, similarly enhanced sleep, reduced nightmares and diminished other PTSD symptoms among patients.26 It seems, however, that the positive effects of THC in relation to PTSD are limited, leaving many features of this condition unaffected.2 Unfortunately, the available data showing a cannabinoid–PTSD link in human clinical trials have been relatively sparse and yielded mixed results, ranging from ameliorated symptoms to cautions concerning its efficacy.2,27 Furthermore, because PTSD is so often comorbid with depressive illnesses and anxiety disorders, it is uncertain whether the eCB links reflect a direct causal connection to PTSD or actions related to anxiety or depression.

In addition to potentially reducing PTSD symptoms, cannabis also mitigates the propensity for inflammation14 and may be useful in psychological conditions that involve elevated inflammatory processes within the brain. This would include a subset of depressed individuals in whom inflammation may be a component of the illness and may contribute to threat processing linked to PTSD in trauma survivors. 9 In fact, anti-inflammatory agents can diminish PTSD features in an animal model, and in humans PTSD was accompanied by elevated circulating proinflammatory cytokines. 28,29 Thus, cannabinoids could potentially act against PTSD by activation of cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2) receptors, which promote anti-inflammatory actions involving microglia.30,9

Behavioural and neurobiological changes in rodents vary as a function of the nature of the stressor experienced and its chronicity9,31 and vary with the passage of time, as observed in the development of neuronal sensitization.32 The evolution of PTSD may likewise involve dynamic processes, including a phase soon after trauma, wherein features of the illness incubate and emerge with time-dependent variations in the sensitization of neuronal functioning.33 Whether further changes in the processes subserving PTSD develop over the ensuing months is uncertain; nor is it clear whether different treatments at various phases of the illness would be most effective. It has been maintained that treatment with cortisol (or related compounds) or those that affect norepinephrine at specific post-trauma periods may prevent the development of PTSD, possibly by affecting the consolidation or reconsolidation of fear-related memories.34 The actions of cannabinoids on PTSD symptomatology may likewise come about owing to any number of processes, including disruption of fear memory consolidation, decreasing salience of ordinarily significant stimuli, or facilitating the extinction of fear memories.35,36 As cannabinoid variations may function as a fundamental component of adaptation to a stressor,23 such changes may also evolve with time following trauma experiences, as observed in relation to trauma memories.37 It should also be considered that the cluster of PTSD symptoms as well as the magnitude and type of trauma experienced in humans vary over time following the trauma and in turn that the efficacy of cannabisrelated treatments may also vary.38

Much still needs to be assessed concerning the efficacy and safety of cannabis in treating PTSD and other conditions. Among other things, questions remain concerning effective doses for different conditions, how long the drug needs to be taken before positive effects can be expected, potential sex differences in the effectiveness of cannabinoid action, and to what extent adverse outcomes can be expected in some people. Moreover, given the differential effects of THC and CBD in relation to affective behaviours and cognitive functioning, 39 it is necessary to determine the ratio of the different cannabis components (e.g., THC in relation to CBD) that are most effective at promoting therapeutic effects while minimizing adverse effects. It is also possible that cannabis or some of its components might serve as a useful tool in creating openness or a bridge to assist psychotherapy, much as 3,4,-methylenedioxymethamphetamine might have such actions, 40 although perhaps through different mechanisms.41,42

Considerable research in animals has pointed to benefits of cannabinoids in the treatment of PTSD. Legal restrictions that existed regarding access and use of cannabis had, unfortunately, limited the evaluation of the medical use of cannabis in humans,43 including treatment of psychological disorders. The limited research in humans has nevertheless suggested that cannabis can ameliorate particular features of PTSD. However, these studies had a small number of participants, did not distinguish between the conditions that promoted the disorder (e.g., an acute traumatic experience, chronic stressor encounters, multiple trauma experiences), and did not consider the time at which the disorder was treated relative to when the trauma was experienced. In effect, the studies were typically of low quality, and large-scale studies remain to be conducted evaluating the efficacy of cannabis use in the treatment of PTSD. Nonetheless, the preclinical studies, together with the few clinical studies reported, support further detailed investigation into the use of cannabinoids in the treatment of PTSD. As in the case of so many other medical conditions for which new treatments have emerged at a rapid pace, it is important to distinguish between actual remedies versus those that are simply hopes. It is unfortunate that research pertaining to cannabis safety and efficacy for various illnesses has not kept pace with social reforms concerning its use. As indicated in a recent headline,44 within the United States, “ Legal weed is everywhere — unless you’re a scientist.” The recent legalization of cannabis within Canada may provide the opportunity to conduct the necessary research to determine whether cannabis-based treatments are more than snake oil.

Acknowledgements

This work was done with the support of grants from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

Footnotes

  • Competing interests: The Institute of Mental Health, headed by Z. Merali, received a Chair in Military Mental Health from the Department of National Defense. No other competing interests declared.

  • The views expressed in this editorial are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the position of the Canadian Medical Association or its subsidiaries, the journal’s editorial board or the Canadian College of Neuropsychopharmacology.

References

  1. ↵
    1. Jeffreys D
    (2004) Aspirin: The Remarkable Story of a Wonderdrug (Bloomsbury Publishing, London).
  2. ↵
    1. Parker LA
    (2017) Cannabinoids and the brain (The MIT press, Boston).
  3. ↵
    1. Crippa JA,
    2. Guimarães FS,
    3. Campos AC,
    4. et al
    .Translational investigation of the therapeutic potential of cannabidiol (CBD): toward a new age.Front Immunol 2018;21:2009
    OpenUrl
  4. ↵
    1. Lovelace JW,
    2. Corches A,
    3. Vieira PA,
    4. et al
    .An animal model of female adolescent cannabinoid exposure elicits a long-lasting deficit in presynaptic long-term plasticity.Neuropharmacology 2015;99:242–55.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Renard J,
    2. Rushlow WJ,
    3. Laviolette SR
    .Effects of adolescent THC exposure on the prefrontal GABAergic system: implications for schizophrenia-related psychopathology.Front Psychiatry 2018;9:281
    OpenUrl
  5. ↵
    1. Volkow ND,
    2. Baler RD,
    3. Compton WM,
    4. et al
    .Adverse health effects of cannabis use.N Engl J Med 2014;370:2219–27.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  6. ↵
    1. Hill M
    .Perspective: Be clear about the real risks.Nature 2015;525:S14
    OpenUrl
  7. ↵
    1. Bitencourt RM,
    2. Takahashi RN
    .Cannabidiol as a Therapeutic alternative for post-traumatic stress disorder: from bench research to confirmation in human trials.Front Neurosci 2018;24:502
    OpenUrl
  8. ↵
    1. Anisman H,
    2. Hayley S,
    3. Kusnecov A
    (2018) The Immune System and Mental Health (Elsevier, London).
  9. ↵
    1. Richter-Levin G,
    2. Stork O,
    3. Schmidt MV
    .Animal models of PTSD: a challenge to be met.Mol Psychiatry 2018;23:1–22.
    OpenUrl
  10. ↵
    1. Kang JI,
    2. Kim TY,
    3. Choi JH,
    4. et al
    .Allele-specific DNA methylation level of FKBP5 is associated with post-traumatic stress disorder.Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018;103:1–7.
    OpenUrl
  11. ↵
    1. Pape JC,
    2. Carrillo-Roa T,
    3. Rothbaum BO,
    4. et al
    .DNA methylation levels are associated with CRF1 receptor antagonist treatment outcome in women with post-traumatic stress disorder.Clin Epigenetics 2018;10:136
    OpenUrl
  12. ↵
    1. Schöner J,
    2. Heinz A,
    3. Endres M,
    4. et al
    .Post-traumatic stress disorder and beyond: an overview of rodent stress models.J Cell Mol Med 2017;21:2248–56.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  13. ↵
    1. Burstein S
    .Cannabidiol (CBD) and its analogs: a review of their effects on inflammation.Bioorg Med Chem 2015;23:1377–85.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  14. ↵
    1. McEwen BS
    .Mood disorders and allostatic load.Biol Psychiatry 2003;54:200–7.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  15. ↵
    1. Shalev A,
    2. Liberzon I,
    3. Marmar C
    .Post-traumatic stress disorder.N Engl J Med 2017;376:2459–69.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  16. ↵
    1. Hill MN,
    2. Campolongo P,
    3. Yehuda R,
    4. et al
    .Integrating endocannabinoid signaling and cannabinoids into the biology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder.Neuropsychopharmacology 2018;43:80–102.
    OpenUrl
  17. ↵
    1. Geuze E,
    2. Westenberg HG,
    3. Jochims A,
    4. et al
    .Altered pain processing in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:76–85.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  18. ↵
    1. Tsai J,
    2. Whealin JM,
    3. Scott JC,
    4. et al
    .Examining the relation between combat-related concussion, a novel 5-factor model of posttraumatic stress symptoms, and health-related quality of life in Iraq and Afghanistan veterans.J Clin Psychiatry 2012;73:1110–8.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  19. ↵
    1. Kimerling R,
    2. Allen MC,
    3. Duncan LE
    .Chromosomes to social contexts: sex and gender differences in PTSD.Curr Psychiatry Rep 2018;20:114
    OpenUrl
  20. ↵
    1. Lutz B,
    2. Marsicano G,
    3. Maldonado R,
    4. et al
    .The endocannabinoid system in guarding against fear, anxiety and stress.Nat Rev Neurosci 2015;16:705–18.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  21. ↵
    1. Morena M,
    2. Patel S,
    3. Bains JS,
    4. et al
    .Neurobiological interactions between stress and the endocannabinoid system.Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;41:80–102.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  22. ↵
    1. Neumeister A,
    2. Seidel J,
    3. Ragen BJ,
    4. et al
    .Translational evidence for a role of endocannabinoids in the etiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder.Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015;51:577–84.
    OpenUrl
  23. ↵
    1. Hill MN,
    2. McLaughlin RJ,
    3. Bingham B,
    4. et al
    .Endogenous cannabinoid signaling is essential for stress adaptation.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010;107:9406–11.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  24. ↵
    1. Roitman P,
    2. Mechoulam R,
    3. Cooper-Kazaz R,
    4. et al
    .Preliminary, open-label, pilot study of add-on oral Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in chronic post-traumatic stress disorder.Clin Drug Investig 2014;34:587–91.
    OpenUrl
  25. ↵
    1. Jetly R,
    2. Heber A,
    3. Fraser G,
    4. et al
    .The efficacy of nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid, in the treatment of PTSD-associated nightmares: a preliminary randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over design study.Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015;51:585–8.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  26. ↵
    1. Shishko I,
    2. Oliveira R,
    3. Moore TA,
    4. et al
    .A review of medical marijuana for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Real symptom re-leaf or just high hopes?.Ment Health Clin 2018;8:86–94.
    OpenUrl
  27. ↵
    1. Wang W,
    2. Wang R,
    3. Xu J,
    4. et al
    .Minocycline attenuates stress-induced behavioral changes via its anti-inflammatory effects in an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder.Front Psychiatry 2018;9:558
    OpenUrl
  28. ↵
    1. Hori H,
    2. Kim Y
    .Inflammation and posttraumatic stress disorder.Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2019doi:10.1111/pcn.12820
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  29. ↵
    1. Mecha M,
    2. Carrillo-Salinas FJ,
    3. Feliú A,
    4. et al
    .Microglia activation states and cannabinoid system: therapeutic implications.Pharmacol Ther 2016;166:40–55.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  30. ↵
    1. Merali Z,
    2. Khan S,
    3. Michaud DS,
    4. et al
    .Does amygdaloid corticotropin- releasing hormone (CRH) mediate anxiety-like behaviors? Dissociation of anxiogenic effects and CRH release.Eur J Neurosci 2004;20:229–39.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  31. ↵
    1. Anisman H,
    2. Merali Z,
    3. Hayley S
    .Sensitization associated with stressors and cytokine treatments.Brain Behav Immun 2003;17:86–93.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  32. ↵
    1. Lima MG,
    2. Silva RX,
    3. Silva S,
    4. et al
    .Time-dependent sensitization of stress responses in zebrafish: a putative model for post-traumatic stress disorder.Behav Processes 2016;128:70–82.
    OpenUrl
  33. ↵
    1. Yehuda R,
    2. Bierer LM,
    3. Pratchett LC,
    4. et al
    .Cortisol augmentation of a psychological treatment for warfighters with posttraumatic stress disorder: randomized trial showing improved treatment retention and outcome.Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015;51:589–97.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  34. ↵
    1. Kuhnert S,
    2. Meyer C,
    3. Koch M
    .Involvement of cannabinoid receptors in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex of rats in fear learning, consolidation, retrieval and extinction.Behav Brain Res 2013;250:274–84.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  35. ↵
    1. Morena M,
    2. Roozendaal B,
    3. Trezza V,
    4. et al
    .Endogenous cannabinoid release within prefrontal-limbic pathways affects memory consolidation of emotional training.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014;111:18333–8.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  36. ↵
    1. Rossignoli MT,
    2. Lopes-Aguiar C,
    3. Ruggiero RN,
    4. et al
    .Selective post-training time window for memory consolidation interference of cannabidiol into the prefrontal cortex: reduced dopaminergic modulation and immediate gene expression in limbic circuits.Neuroscience 2017;350:85–93.
    OpenUrl
  37. ↵
    1. Solomon Z,
    2. Horesh D,
    3. Ein-Dor T
    .The longitudinal course of posttraumatic stress disorder symptom clusters among war veterans.J Clin Psychiatry 2009;70:837–43.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  38. ↵
    1. Szkudlarek HJ,
    2. Desai SJ,
    3. Renard J,
    4. et al
    .Δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol produce dissociable effects on prefrontal cortical executive function and regulation of affective behaviors[Epub ahead of print]Neuropsychopharmacology 2018doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0282-7
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  39. ↵
    1. Sessa B
    .MDMA and PTSD treatment: “PTSD: from novel pathophysiology to innovative therapeutics.Neurosci Lett 2017;649:176–80.
    OpenUrl
  40. ↵
    1. Doss MK,
    2. Weafer J,
    3. Gallo DA,
    4. et al
    .MDMA impairs both the encoding and retrieval of emotional recollections.Neuropsychopharmacology 2018;43:791–800.
    OpenUrl
  41. ↵
    1. Doss MK,
    2. Weafer J,
    3. Gallo DA,
    4. et al
    .9-Tetrahydrocannabinol at retrieval drives false recollection of neutral and emotional memories.Biol Psychiatry 2018;84:743–50.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  42. ↵
    1. Mechoulam R,
    2. Hanuš LO,
    3. Pertwee R,
    4. et al
    .Early phytocannabinoid chemistry to endocannabinoids and beyond.Nat Rev Neurosci 2014;15:757–64.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  43. ↵
    1. Owermohle S
    .Legal weed is everywhere – unless you’re a scientist.Politico 2018Available: https://www.politico.com/story/2018/12/25/legal-weed-scientists-1074188accessed 2018 Dec. 15
PreviousNext
Back to top

In this issue

Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience: 44 (2)
J Psychiatry Neurosci
Vol. 44, Issue 2
1 Mar 2019
  • Table of Contents
  • Table of Contents (PDF)
  • Cover (PDF)
  • Index by author

Article tools

Respond to this article
Print
Download PDF
Article Alerts
To sign up for email alerts or to access your current email alerts, enter your email address below:
Email Article

Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on JPN.

NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address.

Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas.
Cannabis: A potential efficacious intervention for PTSD or simply snake oil?
(Your Name) has sent you a message from JPN
(Your Name) thought you would like to see the JPN web site.
CAPTCHA
This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions.
Citation Tools
Cannabis: A potential efficacious intervention for PTSD or simply snake oil?
Alfonso Abizaid, Zul Merali, Hymie Anisman
J Psychiatry Neurosci Mar 2019, 44 (2) 75-78; DOI: 10.1503/jpn.190021

Citation Manager Formats

  • BibTeX
  • Bookends
  • EasyBib
  • EndNote (tagged)
  • EndNote 8 (xml)
  • Medlars
  • Mendeley
  • Papers
  • RefWorks Tagged
  • Ref Manager
  • RIS
  • Zotero
‍ Request Permissions
Share
Cannabis: A potential efficacious intervention for PTSD or simply snake oil?
Alfonso Abizaid, Zul Merali, Hymie Anisman
J Psychiatry Neurosci Mar 2019, 44 (2) 75-78; DOI: 10.1503/jpn.190021
Digg logo Reddit logo Twitter logo Facebook logo Google logo Mendeley logo
  • Tweet Widget
  • Facebook Like

Related Articles

  • No related articles found.
  • PubMed
  • Google Scholar

Cited By...

  • No citing articles found.
  • Google Scholar

Similar Articles

Content

  • Current issue
  • Past issues
  • Collections
  • Alerts
  • RSS

Authors & Reviewers

  • Overview for Authors
  • Submit a manuscript
  • Manuscript Submission Checklist

About

  • General Information
  • Staff
  • Editorial Board
  • Contact Us
  • Advertising
  • Reprints
  • Copyright and Permissions
  • Accessibility
  • CMA Civility Standards
CMAJ Group

Copyright 2023, CMA Impact Inc. or its licensors. All rights reserved. ISSN 1180-4882.

All editorial matter in JPN represents the opinions of the authors and not necessarily those of the Canadian Medical Association or its subsidiaries.
To receive any of these resources in an accessible format, please contact us at CMAJ Group, 500-1410 Blair Towers Place, Ottawa ON, K1J 9B9; p: 1-888-855-2555; e: [email protected].
View CMA's Accessibility policy.

Powered by HighWire