Article Figures & Tables
Figures
- Fig. 1
Brightness induction and contrast suppression tests. Top: Brightness induction refers to the effect of surround luminance on centre brightness (i.e., perceived luminance). The centre patches A and B are equal in luminance, but they appear different in brightness because of the difference in background luminance. A dark background enhances brightness; a bright background decreases brightness. Bottom: Contrast suppression refers to the effect of background on the apparent contrast of the centre. The centre patches C and D have identical contrast, but the contrast of C appears to be reduced or suppressed because of the collinear background. The contrasts of the backgrounds are identical, and only the orientation relative to the centre grating is different.
- Fig. 2
(A) We observed no difference in brightness induction between patients experiencing an MDE and controls (i.e., the perceptual difference between patches A and B in Figure 1 was similar for both groups). (B) We observed a highly significant difference in contrast suppression between patients experiencing an MDE and controls (i.e., the perceptual difference between patches C and D in Figure 1 was larger for controls than for patients). Error bars depict standard errors of the mean. MDE = major depressive episode.
- Fig. 3
Effect of (A) diagnostic subgroup and (B) medication on the strength of brightness induction (top) and contrast suppression (bottom). The error bars depict standard errors of the mean. BD = bipolar disorder; BPD = borderline personality disorder; MDD = major depressive disorder.
- Fig. 4
Follow-up results. The change in brightness induction (top) and contrast suppression (bottom) test scores at the end of follow-up plotted against the change in MADRS scores at the end of follow-up. MADRS = Montgomery–Åsberg Depression Rating Scale.
Tables
Characteristic Patients Controls Total Major depressive disorder Bipolar disorder Borderline personality disorder Patients, n Baseline 111 46 38 27 29 F/M 74/37 27/19 27/11 20/7 21/8 Follow-up 74 33 24 17 — Sex χ2* — 3.75 0.60 0.37 — p value — 0.053 0.44 0.54 — Age, yr, mean ± SD — 31.8 ± 10.1 32.0 ± 9.3 28.0 ± 7.3 32.1 ± 9.0 t† — t62.0 = 0.30 t58.1 = 0.22 t53.0 = 1.63 — p value — 0.76 0.83 0.11 — MADRS score, mean ± SD — 24.0 ± 6.2 21.7 ± 7.0 22.2 ± 6.5 2.3 ± 3.5 t† — t76.0 = 19.6 t65.5 = 15.6 t46.7 = 15.1 — p value — < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 — YMRS score, mean ± SD — 1.70 ± 2.66 3.44 ± 3.70 3.55 ± 2.62 0.74 ± 1.61 t† — t73.94 = 1.97 t62.0 = 4.20 t50.64 = 4.99 — p value — 0.053 < 0.001 < 0.001 — Medication Subgroup (no. of patients)† Brightness induction‡ Contrast suppression‡ Mood stabilizer (14) Antipsychotic (21) Antidepressant (78) β p value β p value Valproate 0.29 0.10 0.03 0.060 0.58 −0.369 0.001§ Lamotrigine 0.43 0.14 0.05 0.136 0.18 −0.072 0.45 Pregabalin 0.29 — 0.05 0.054 0.63 −0.076 0.47 Benzodiazepine 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.040 0.71 0.060 0.55 SSRI, SARI or SMS 0.36 0.43 0.68 −0.103 0.35 −0.092 0.37 SNRI or tricyclic antidepressant 0.36 0.14 0.32 −0.001 0.99 −0.036 0.75 Tetracyclic antidepressant 0.07 — 0.10 −0.039 0.70 −0.036 0.71 NDRI — 0.05 0.06 −0.032 0.75 −0.027 0.78 Agomelatine — — 0.01 −0.042 0.68 −0.029 0.77 Other 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.023 0.82 0.116 0.24 NDRI = norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor; SARI = serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitor; SMS = serotonin modulator and stimulator (vortioxetine); SNRI = serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor; SSRI = selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.
↵* Nineteen patients used no medication. Some patients used multiple medications.
↵† Proportion of patients using the medication in each subgroup.
↵‡ Brightness induction and contrast suppression β coefficients and p values are from linear regression analysis.
↵§ p < 0.01.
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