Emotion dysregulation (9) | Frontal lobe, (10)– (13) cingulate cortex, (11), (14) limbic regions, (13) amygdala (15) | Cholinergic, (16) dopaminergic, (17) noradrenergic, (18) serotoninergic, (16), (19) NMDA (20), (21) |
Poor impulse control, impulsivity, aggression (4), (19) | Frontal lobe, (10), (12) cingulate cortex, (14) limbic regions (15) | Serotonergic, (16), (19), (22) dopaminergic, (17) noradrenergic, (18) NMDA, (21) vasopressin (16) |
Cognitive dysfunctions (10),, (23)– (25) |
– Attention | Amygdala, cingulate cortex (14), (26) | NMDA, (36) dopaminergic, (17) noradrenergic (16) |
– Memory and learning processes: | | |
• working memory | Hippocampus (29) | NMDAR, (37) serotonergic, (38) dopaminergic (38) |
• declarative (explicit) memory; episodic and semantic | Hippocampus (29) | NMDAR, (37) serotonergic, (38) dopaminergic (38) |
• procedural (implicit) memory; priming and skills (including social skills); classical conditioning (including emotional learning and fear conditioning); habituation | Amygdala, (15), (27), (29)– (31) basal ganglia, cerebellum; perceptual and association cortex | NMDA, (37), (39) AMPA (40) |
– Executive systems (planning, conflict resolution, adaptation to environmental changes) | Prefrontal cortex, (12) cingulate cortex (14) | NMDA (37), (39) |
– Social cognition (emotion recognition, interpretation of emotion, mentalization) | Amygdala, (15), (32) insula, perirhinal cortex, (33) cingulate cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, (32) frontal cortex, mirror neuron system (34), (35) | Serotoninergic, (16), (19) NMDA (33) |
Dissociative state (7) and temporary malfunction of reality testing (8) | Cingulate cortex, (41), (42) thalamus, (41), (43) temporal parietal cortices (31), (42) | NMDA, (20), (44) dopaminergic (17) |