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Figures
- Figure 1
The experimental schedule. Initially, we trained and tested the animals in a series of probabilistic reversal learning tests. Based on this “negative feedback sensitivity screening,” we classified each rat as more or less sensitive to negative feedback. Then, in the 2-bottle choice paradigm, we measured the consumption of alcohol in the animals classified above. In the next step, using the alcohol seeking-taking-punishment task, we examined the influence of sensitivity to negative feedback on the development of compulsive alcohol seeking behaviour. We then measured how trait sensitivity to negative feedback affected the extinction of alcohol seeking and the reinstatement of this behaviour after a period of abstinence.
- Figure 2
Results of negative feedback sensitivity screening. (A) Average proportion of lose-shift behaviours after misleading unrewarded outcomes; (B) average proportion of win-stay behaviours after a reward; and (C) average number of reversals in animals classified as less sensitive (open circles, n = 10) and more sensitive (filled circles, n = 10) to negative feedback during the 10 screening probabilistic reversal learning tests. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error of the mean.
- Figure 3
Alcohol intake during the intermittent-access 2-bottle choice sessions. Average daily alcohol intake (g/kg of body weight) in groups of rats classified as less sensitive (open circles, n = 9) and more sensitive (filled circles, n = 6) to negative feedback. Data are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean. *Significant (p < 0.05) difference in average alcohol consumption (for the entire cohort) between a given 2-bottle choice session and the first 2-bottle choice session.
- Figure 4
Trait sensitivity to negative feedback determines compulsive alcohol seeking and taking in rats. Rats were trained on an instrumental second-order chained schedule of alcohol reinforcement task to work for alcohol, and then their seeking responses were punished by mild electric foot shocks of increasing intensity (from 0.1 through 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 up to 0.5 mA). As the shock intensity increased, the rats classified as more sensitive to negative feedback (filled circles, n = 5) significantly decreased (A) their number of seeking responses and (B) their number of completed trials compared to their baseline performance and to the less sensitive cohort (open circles, n = 8). Data are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean. *Significant (p < 0.05) difference between the less sensitive and more sensitive groups.
- Figure 5
The effects of trait sensitivity to negative feedback on the length of extinction and reinstatement of compulsive alcohol seeking in rats. (A) After the punishment tests, the rats underwent 5 baseline seeking-taking tests and then underwent the extinction phase, during which seeking responses did not result in alcohol delivery. All rats extinguished their seeking lever responses, but animals more sensitive to negative feedback (filled circles, n = 6) needed significantly fewer sessions to cease their seeking behaviour than their less sensitive counterparts (open circles, n = 9; inset). *Significant (p < 0.05) difference between the more sensitive and less sensitive groups. (B) After a 30-day abstinence interval, rats from the less sensitive (open circles, n = 9) and more sensitive (filled circles, n = 6) groups underwent 10 seeking-taking tests to measure how quickly they reinstated their baseline level of alcohol seeking responses. Data are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean.
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